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Pressure measurements: – There are four types of pressure: Absolute pressure, gauge pressure, differential pressure, Vacuum Pressure Sensor. There are two main types of the Pressure measurement device. They are piston and liquid column. Piston-Type Gauges – Piston-type gauges counterbalance the pressure of a fluid with a spring such as a tire gauge or a solid weight, known as a deadweight tester. 

A general and popular contention is that an instrument measures the absolute value of the metric as against a gauge which establishes and is concerned with the metric’s compatibility with the specified end limits without giving the exact value of the metric within these limits. 

Temperature measurement – Temperature measurement (also known as thermometry) describes the process of measuring a current local temperature for immediate or later evaluation. Temperature is a critical — and constantly measured — controllable process variable for engineers with applications ranging from water feed to a boiler to the temperature inside an induction furnace. In fact, temperature measurement in industrial processes covers a diverse universe of needs. To meet these needs, manufacturers of process controllers have developed many sensor types and devices. 

Over time, those three types are the primary temperature sensors used in industrial processing. This article will take a closer look at each and how they can best serve today’s industrial processes. 

Pressure sensor- Pressure sensor is a device for the pressure measurement of gases or liquids. Pressure is an expression of the force required to stop a fluid from expanding and is usually stated in terms of force per unit area. A pressure sensor usually acts as a transducer; it generates a signal as a function of the pressure imposed. For the purposes of this article, such a signal is electrical. Pressure sensors are used for control and monitoring in thousands of everyday applications. Pressure sensors can also be used to indirectly measure other variables such as fluid/gas flow, speed, water level, and altitude. Pressure sensors can alternatively be called pressure transducers, pressure transmitters, pressure senders, pressure indicators, piezometers and manometers, among other names.  

Pressure switch- Pressure switch is a form of switch that operates an electrical contact when a certain set of fluid pressure has been reached on its input. The switch may be designed to make contact either on pressure rise or on pressure fall. Pressure switches are widely used in industry to automatically supervise and control systems that use pressurized fluids.  

Temperature switches– Temperature switches are the mechanisms used to measure temperature. The working of a temperature switch is based upon the temperature variations taking place in an enclosed space, or in an open area adjoining the temperature detecting component. In general, the functioning of a temperature switch and a pressure switch is almost the same since both the devices get triggered by variations in pressure. In many of the temperature switch designs, the temperature sensing element is positioned in such a way that the rise or drop in temperature results in the increase and decrease of internal pressure of liquid or gas such as in liquid filled temperature switches. This variation in pressure can then be used to actuate a switching mechanism. 

Types of Temperature Switches 

Bimetallic Strip & Liquid Filled Temperature Switch  

Thermometer- Thermometer is a device that measures temperature or a temperature gradient (the degree of hotness or coldness of an object). A thermometer has two important elements: (1) a temperature sensor (e.g., the bulb of a mercury-in-glass thermometer or the pyrometric sensor in an infrared thermometer) in which some change occurs with a change in temperature; and (2) some means of converting this change into a numerical value (e.g., the visible scale that is marked on a mercury-in-glass thermometer or the digital readout on an infrared model). Thermometers are widely used in technology and industry to monitor processes, in meteorology, in medicine, and in scientific research.  

Thermocouple – Thermocouple is an electrical device consisting of two dissimilar electrical conductors forming an electrical junction. A thermocouple produces a temperature-dependent voltage as a result of See beck effect, and this voltage can be interpreted to measure temperature. Thermocouples are a widely used type of temperature sensor.

Valve– Valve is a device or natural object that regulates, directs or controls the flow of a fluid (gases, liquids, fluidized solids, or slurries) by opening, closing, or partially obstructing various passageways. Valves are technically fittings, but are usually discussed as a separate category. In an open valve, fluid flows in a direction from higher pressure to lower pressure. The word is derived from the Latin valve, the moving part of a door, in turn from Volver, to turn, roll.  

Solenoid valve– Solenoid valve is an electromechanically-operated valve. 

Solenoid valves differ in the characteristics of the electric current they use, the strength of the magnetic field they generate, the mechanism they use to regulate the fluid, and the type and characteristics of the fluid they control. The mechanism varies from linear action, plunger-type actuators to pivoted-armature actuators and rocker actuators. The valve can use a two-port design to regulate a flow or use a three or more port design to switch flows between ports. Multiple solenoid valves can be placed together on a manifold. 

Control valve- Control valve is a valve used to control fluid flow by varying the size of the flow passage as directed by a signal from a controller.[1] This enables the direct control of flow rate and the consequential control of process quantities such as pressure, temperature, and liquid level. 

In automatic control terminology, a control valve is termed a “final control element. 

Ball valve- Ball valve is a form of quarter-turn valve which uses a hollow, perforated and pivoting ball to control flow through it. It is open when the ball’s hole is in line with the flow and closed when it is pivoted 90-degrees by the valve handle.[1] The handle lies flat in alignment with the flow when open, and is perpendicular to it when closed, making for easy visual confirmation of the valve’s status.[2] The shut position 1/4 turn could be in either CW or CCW direction. (S = SHUT, O = OPEN). Ball valves are durable, performing well after many cycles, and reliable, closing securely even after long periods of disuse. These qualities make them an excellent choice for shutoff and control applications, where they are often preferred. 

Check valve- Check valve, non-return valve, reflux valve, retention valve, foot valve, or one-way valve is a valve that normally allows fluid (liquid or gas) to flow through it in only one direction.[1] Check valves are two-port valves, meaning they have two openings in the body, one for fluid to enter and the other for fluid to leave. There are various types of check valves used in a wide variety of applications. Check valves are often part of common household items. An important concept in check valves is the cracking pressure which is the minimum differential upstream pressure between the inlet and outlet at which the valve will operate. Typically, the check valve is designed for and can therefore be specified for a specific cracking pressure. 

Flow control valve– Flow control valve regulates the flow or pressure of a fluid. Control valves normally respond to signals generated by independent devices such as flow meters or temperature gauges.

Gate valve– Gate valve, also known as a sluice valve, is a valve that opens by lifting a barrier (gate) out of the path of the fluid. Gate valves require very little space along the pipe axis and hardly restrict the flow of fluid when the gate is fully opened. The gate faces can be parallel but are most commonly wedge-shaped (in order to be able to apply pressure on the sealing surface).  

Weighing Scale- Scale or balance is a device to measure weight or mass. These are also known as mass scales, weight scales, mass balances, weight balances. 

The traditional scale consists of two plates or bowls suspended at equal distances from a fulcrum. One plate holds an object of unknown mass (or weight), while known masses are added to the other plate until static equilibrium is achieved and the plates level off, which happens when the masses on the two plates are equal. The perfect scale rests at neutral. A spring scale will make use of a spring of known stiffness to determine mass (or weight). Suspending a certain mass will extend the spring by a certain amount depending on the spring’s stiffness (or spring constant). The heavier the object, the more the spring stretches, as described in Hooke’s law. Other types of scales making use of different physical principles also exist.  

Pneumatics Equipment’s- Pneumatics (from Greek πν pneuma ‘wind, breath’) is a branch of engineering that makes use of gas or pressurized air. 

Pneumatic systems used in industry are commonly powered by compressed air or compressed inert gases. A centrally located and electrically-powered compressor powers cylinders, air motors, pneumatic actuators, and other pneumatic devices. A pneumatic system controlled through manual or automatic solenoid valves is selected when it provides a lower cost, more flexible, or safer alternative to electric motors and hydraulic actuators. 

Pneumatics also has applications in dentistry, construction, mining, and other areas.  

Cylinder- Cylinder (from Greek κύλινδρος – kulindros, “roller”, “tumbler”[1]) has traditionally been a three-dimensional solid, one of the most basic of curvilinear geometric shapes. It is the idealized version of a solid physical tin can having lids on top and bottom. 

This traditional view is still used in elementary treatments of geometry, but the advanced mathematical viewpoint has shifted to the infinite curvilinear surface and this is how a cylinder is now defined in various modern branches of geometry and topology. 

The shift in the basic meaning (solid versus surface) has created some ambiguity with terminology. It is generally hoped that context makes the meaning clear. Both points of view are typically presented and distinguished by referring to solid cylinders and cylindrical surfaces, but in the literature, the unadorned term cylinder could refer to either of these or to an even more specialized object, the right circular cylinder.  

Pressure regulator- Pressure regulator is a valve that controls the pressure of a fluid or gas to the desired value. Regulators are used for gases and liquids and can be an integral device with a pressure setting, a restrictor and a sensor all in one body, or consist of a separate pressure sensor, controller and flow valve. Two types are found: The pressure reduction regulator and the back-pressure regulator. 

Both types of regulator use feedback of the regulated pressure as input to the control mechanism, and are commonly actuated by a spring-loaded diaphragm or piston reacting to changes in the feedback pressure to control the valve opening, and in both cases, the valve should be opened only enough to maintain the set regulated pressure.  

Battery regulator- Battery balancing and battery redistribution refer to techniques that improve the available capacity of a battery pack with multiple cells (usually in series) and increase each cell’s longevity.[1] A battery balancer or battery regulator is an electrical device in a battery pack that performs battery balancing.[2] Balancers are often found in lithium-ion battery packs for laptop computers, electrical vehicles. etc. 

Multimeter- Multimeter or multitester is a measuring instrument that can measure multiple electrical properties. A typical multimeter can measure voltage, resistance, and current, in which case it is also known as a volt-ohm-milliammeter (VOM). 

Analogue multimeters use a microammeter with a moving pointer to display readings. Digital multimeters (DMM, DVOM) have numeric displays and have made analogue multimeters obsolete as they are cheaper, more precise, and more physically robust than analogue multimeters. 

Multimeters vary in size, features, and price. They can be portable handheld devices or highly precise bench instruments. Cheap multimeters can cost under US$10, while laboratory-grade models with certified calibration can cost over US$5,000.  

Digital-to-analog converter-     In electronics, a digital-to-analogue converter (DAC, D/A, D2A, or D-to-A) is a system that converts a digital signal into an analogue signal. An analogue-to-digital converter (ADC) performs the reverse function. 

There are several DAC architectures; the suitability of a DAC for a particular application is determined by figures of merit including resolution, maximum sampling frequency and others. digital-to-analogue conversion can degrade a signal, so a DAC should be specified that has insignificant errors in terms of the application. 

PH indicator- pH indicator is a halochromic chemical compound added in small amounts to a solution so the pH (acidity or basicity) of the solution can be determined visually. Hence, a pH indicator is a chemical detector for hydronium ions (H3O+) or hydrogen ions (H+) in the Arrhenius model. Normally, the indicator causes the colour of the solution to change depending on the pH. Indicators can also show a change in other physical properties; for example, olfactory indicators show a change in their odour. The pH value of a neutral solution is 7.0 at 25°C (standard laboratory conditions). Solutions with a pH value below 7.0 are considered acidic and solutions with a pH value above 7.0 are basic (alkaline). As most naturally occurring organic compounds are weak proteolytic, carboxylic acids and amines, pH indicators find many applications in biology and analytical chemistry. Moreover, pH indicators form one of the three main types of indicator compounds used in chemical analysis. For the quantitative analysis of metal cations, the use of complexometric indicators is preferred,[1][2] whereas the third compound class, the redox indicators, are used in titrations involving a redox reaction as the basis of the analysis.  

Actuator- An actuator is a component of a machine that is responsible for moving and controlling a mechanism or system, for example by opening a valve. In simple terms, it is a “mover”. 

An actuator requires a control signal and a source of energy. The control signal is relatively low energy and maybe electric voltage or current, pneumatic, or hydraulic fluid pressure, or even human power. Its main energy source may be an electric current, hydraulic pressure, or pneumatic pressure. When it receives a control signal, an actuator responds by converting the source’s energy into mechanical motion. In the electric, hydraulic, and pneumatic sense, it is a form of automation or automatic control. 

An actuator is a mechanism by which a control system acts to perform an operation or task. The control system can be simple (a fixed mechanical or electronic system), software-based (e.g. a printer driver, robot control system), a human, or any other input. 

Level sensors- Level sensors detect the level of liquids and other fluids and fluidized solids, including slurries, granular materials, and powders that exhibit an upper free surface. Substances that flow become essentially horizontal in their containers (or other physical boundaries) because of gravity whereas most bulk solids pile at an angle of repose to a peak. The substance to be measured can be inside a container or can be in its natural form (e.g., a river or a lake). The level measurement can be either continuous or point values. Continuous level sensors measure level within a specified range and determine the exact amount of substance in a certain place, while point-level sensors only indicate whether the substance is above or below the sensing point. Generally, the latter detect levels that are excessively high or low. 

Flow measurement- Flow measurement is the quantification of bulk fluid movement. Flow can be measured in a variety of ways. Flow measurement methods other than positive-displacement flowmeters rely on forces produced by the flowing stream as it overcomes a known constriction, to indirectly calculate flow. Flow may be measured by measuring the velocity of fluid over a known area. For very large flows, tracer methods may be used to deduce the flow rate from the change in concentration of a dye or radioisotope. 

Flow Switch’s- Flow Switch is a mechanical switch that is switched on or off in response to the flow or non-flow of a fluid such as air or water. The switch typically operates through the use of a paddle which gets displaced due to the force of fluid moving past it. The flow switch is a special electric device with a very simple design and of a small size. But despite its simplicity, flow switch plays important role in the variety of different applications. 

Rotameter– A rotameter is a device that measures the volumetric flow rate of fluid in a closed tube. It belongs to a class of meters called variable-area flowmeters, which measure flow rate by allowing the cross-sectional area the fluid travels through to vary, causing a measurable effect. 

Water metering- Water metering is the practice of measuring water use. Water meters measure the volume of water used by residential and commercial building units that are supplied with water by a public water supply system. They are also used to determine flow through a particular portion of the system. Several types of water meters are in common use and may be characterized by the flow measurement method, the type of end-user, the required flow rates, and accuracy requirements. 

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